FINAL YEAR BA

THE REVOLT OF 1857

The Revolt of 1857, which broke out in Northern and Central India, shook the very foundation of the British Empire in India and nearly swept away British rule. It began with a mutiny of the sepoys, but soon engulfed wide regions and people. Millions of peasants, artisans and soldiers fought heroically for over a year and by their courage and sacrifice wrote a glorious chapter in the history of India. The revolt was truly a watershed in the history of the British rule in India. It changed the character of the British rule, marking an end of the East India Company and bringing British India directly under the British crown.

Causes of the Revolt

There is considerable controversy regarding the actual causes of the Revolt. Historians, especially the British, have emphasized the importance of military grievances and the greased cartridges affair. But recent research has revealed that the greased cartridge was not only the only cause nor even the most important. On the contrary, there were a variety of causes – political, social, religious and economic – which combined to produce the rebellion.

Political Causes. The British policy of annexation had disturbed the political equilibrium in the country. The indiscriminate application of the Doctrine of Lapse by Lord Dalhousie had caused widespread discontent. Several principalities were annexed around this time. The state of Awadh was annexed in 1956. Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Baji Rao II, was refused the pension of the Peshwa when Baji Rao II died in 1851. Similarly the British refused to succeed the adopted son of Jhansi to the throne. The Mughals were disgraced by Dalhousie when he announced in 1849 that the successor of Bahadur Shah would have to abandon the Red Fort as his residence. All these had alarmed the other Princely States. The annexation of Princely States was not a blow to the princely families alone, but to their dependant subjects as well. On the eve of the rebellion, Indians believed that the existence of all states was threatened and annexation of the remaining states was a question of time. These fears were inflamed by the very foreignness of the British rule. Unlike foreign conquerors before them, they remained perpetual foreigners in India and looked down upon the Indians with contempt as racially inferior.

Administrative Causes. The British system of law and administration were very unpopular. Not only was the Indian aristocracy deprived of power and position, but all high posts, civil and military, were reserved for the Europeans. The upper classes were hard hit by their exclusion from the well-paid higher posts in the administration. The administrative machinery of the East India Company was inefficient and inadequate. The judicial system that the Company introduced in India became an instrument of oppression. Moreover, people were hard hit by the prevalence of widespread corruption at all levels of administration. Racial discrimination also was evident everywhere.

Economic Causes: An important cause of the popular discontent was the economic exploitation of the country by British and the complete destruction of its traditional economic system. The economic policies of the British, especially the land revenue policy, was the most unpopular and they impoverished the vast mass of peasants, artisans and handicraftsmen as also a large number of traditional zamindars and chiefs. The Many taluqdars (hereditary landlords) were deprived of their position and resources. Large estates were confiscated and auctioned off. Thus the new land revenue settlement made by the East India Company in the newly annexed states, made the aristocracy poor without benefiting the peasantry, who fell into the clutches of the unprincipled moneylenders and had to suffer the weight of heavy land revenue. The growing poverty of the people made them desperate and led them to join the revolt in the hope of improving their lot.

Social and Religious Causes. The traditional Indian social system and culture appeared to be in danger under the reformist zeal of the British administrators. The introduction of civil laws had considerably reduced the powers wielded traditionally by the Maulavis and Pundits. The missionaries were given all kinds of facilities for the propagation of Christianity. They openly ridiculed and denounce the traditional cuatoms and practices of the people. The Religious Disabilities Act of 1856 modified Hindu customs by which a convert to Christianity could inherit his ancestral property. The Indians generally believed that the British were conspiring to convert them into Christianity.

The conservative religious sentiments of many people were also aroused by some humanitarian measures which the Government had undertaken on the advice of Indian reformers. Abolition of the custom of sati, legislation of widows’ remarriage and the opening of western education to girls appeared to them as undue interference in their customs and religion. Religious sentiments were also hurt by the official policy of taxing lands belonged to temples and mosques which had been exempted from taxation by the Indian rulers.

Military Causes. There was widespread discontent among the Indian soldiers serving in the British army. Majority of the soldiers and junior officers of the British Indian army were Indians. They resented their low pay and poor prospects of promotion. Military campaigns of the British outside the Indian territory caused them considerable hardships. They were also not paid any overseas allowances. They were paid much lower salary than was paid to the European soldiers. No Indian could rise higher than a subedar. Another cause of military discontent was the General Enlistment Act, which made it compulsory for all recruits to cross the seas whenever ordered to do so.

The immediate cause for the revolt of the sepoys was the episode of the greased cartridges. The new Royal Enfield rifle was introduced into the army shortly before the Revolt of 1857. Its cartridges had a greased paper cover whose end had to be bitten off before the cartridge was loaded into the rifle. The grease was in some instances composed of cow and pig fat. This issue is said to have agitated both Hindu and Muslim soldiers since it would endanger their religion.

Beginning and Spread of the Revolt

It is not yet clear whether the revolt was spontaneous and unplanned or the result of a careful and secret organization. One of the peculiarities of the study of the Revolt of 1857 is that it has to be based entirely on British records. The rebels have left behind no records. As they worked illegally, they kept no records. Moreover, as they were defeated, their version of events died with them. While one group of historians has asserted that the revolt was the result of a widespread and well-organized conspiracy, another group forcefully denies the role of any planning in it. The truth seems to lie between the two extreme views. It is likely that there was an organized conspiracy to revolt but that the organization had not progresses sufficiently when the revolt broke out accidentally.

The mutiny was sparked off on May 10, 1857 when the soldiers of the 3^rd Cavalry Regiment at Meerut revolted protesting against the introduction of the new cartridges. Next day the rebellious soldiers marched to Delhi and proclaimed the old Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II as the King Emperor of Hindustan. The success of the rebellion in Delhi created a sensation in various parts of North and Central India and rebellions broke out in Awadh, Rohilkhand, West Bihar and many other towns and cities of the North-Western Provinces. Bahadur Shah soon wrote letters to all the chiefs and rulers of India urging them to organize a confederacy of Indian states to fight and replace the British rule.

The storm centres of the revolt were at Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Jhansi and Arrah in Bihar. The leader of the revolt at Kanpur was Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. Nana Saheb, assisted by his devoted follower Tantia Tope, assumed the role of a conquering hero and was proclaimed the Peshwa. At Jhansi Rani Lakshmibai, the widowed queen of the last ruler of Jhansi, led the rebellion. At Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal, the queen of Awadh declared her 11 year old son Birjis Qadar as Nawab. In Bihar a local Rajput Zamindar Kunwar Singh led the revolt. Another outstanding leader of the revolt was Maulavi Ahmadullah of Faridabad. Several towns of North-Western and Central Provinces such as Aligarh, Etawah, Farukkhabad, Bareilly etc., also rose in rebellion and independent governments were set up there under the former local chiefs.

Everywhere in northern and central India, the mutiny of the sepoys was followed by popular revolts of the civilian population. The people who rose in revolt took advantage of the situation to destroy the money-lenders’ account books and record of debts. They also attacked the British-established law courts, revenue offices and revenue records.

Much of the strength of the revolt lay in Hindu-Muslim unity. Among the soldiers and the people as well as among the leaders there was complete cooperation as between Hindus and Muslims. All the rebels recognized Bahadur Shah as their Emperor. The Hindus and Muslims were equally well represented at all levels of leadership. In those areas where revolt was successful, orders were immediately issued banning cow-slaughter out of respect for Hindu sentiments.

Though nominally Bahadurshah was the leader at Delhi, the real command was headed by General Bhakt Khan. Emperor Bahadurshah was perhaps the weakest link in the leadership of the revolt. He did not firmly support the revolt and wavered between his desire to rule as Emperor and the desire to save himself in the event of the defeat of the revolt.

Suppression of the Revolt

After the initial setbacks, the British poured additional military forces and arms into the country. Delhi was captured on 20 September 1857 after a prolonged and bitter fighting. Bahadurshah was taken prisoner. He was tried and exiled to Rangoon. With the fall of Delhi the focal point of the revolt disappeared. Though other leaders continued the fight, they could not withstand the powerful British offensive against them. One by one, all the great leaders of the revolt fell. The Rani of Jhansi died on the field of battle on 17 June 1858. Having defeated, Nana Saheb escaped to Nepal early in 1859. Tantia Tope escaped into the jungles of Central India where he carried on bitter and brilliant guerilla warfare until April 1859 when he was finally captured. By the end of 1859, British authority over India was fully reestablished.

Causes of the Failure of the Revolt

The failure of the Revolt was a foregone conclusion. Some of the important factors for its failure are as follows.

1. The Revolt was not inspired by any positive and creative idea. It had no vision of a higher social order or higher political system. It lacked plan, propaganda and funds. The only thing which united the rebels was their desire to eliminate the British rule. Still, most of the leaders had desired only to restore their personal rule which the British had terminated through their policy of annexation.
2. The Revolt remained confined to a small part of North and Central India. The whole of Rajputana, Punjab, Eastern India including Bengal and the entire South India remained totally unaffected. The Sikhs, Marathas, Rajputs and the ruling chiefs of Eastern India did not take any part in the Revolt.
3. The rebel leaders lacked political leadership, military experience and strategic perception. None of them realized the consequences of the fall of Delhi, and took no measures for its joint defence.
4. There was little discipline among the rebels and their loyalties were fragile. Intellectually too they were no match to their adversary, whose military techniques were based on modern science and technology.
5. In strategy and tactics the British forces were far superior to the Indian rebels and worked under the orders of a highly organized Government in India which was supported by men and resources of the British empire.
6. There was no single great leader who could bring all the rebel groups into a single force with a definite policy and action. The activities of the rebel leaders were also confined within the narrow limits of self-interest.
7. The lack of interest shown by the intellectuals in the movement was also a serious drawback.

Repercussions of the Revolt

Even though the Revolt of 1857 ended in failure, it was the first great and direct threat to British rule in India. All the leaders and the soldiers who revolted had to sacrifice their lives. The victorious English troops committed inhuman atrocities upon the Indian people. Thousands of rebels were hanged publicly after a mock trial. The rebel villages were destroyed completely.

The Revolt of 1857 brought about fundamental changes in the character of the British administration. Some of them were the following.

1. The Queen’s Proclamation: This was the most important development. The Proclamation was read out by Lord Canning at a Durbar held on November 1, 1858 at Allahabad. The Proclamation announced the end of the rule of the East India Company and assumption of the Government of India directly by the Crown. Under the Proclamation, Lord Canning became the first Viceroy and Governor-General.

2. The Proclamation also declared the end of the era of further expansion of the British empire in India. It also promised non-interference in the religious affairs of the people, grant of equal protection of law and respect for ancient rights and customs of the people.

3. The Act for the Better Government of India, 1858 was passed, which terminated the process commenced by the Pitts India Act of 1784. The Act of 1858 made the Crown directly responsible for the management of Indian affairs. Following this, fundamental changes in the administrative set up were made in the executive, legislative and judicial administration of India by passing the Indian Councils Act of 1861.

4. Indians were associated with legislative matters and administration, and a humble beginning was made by the Indian Councils Act of 1861.

5. The British army was reorganized, increasing the proportion of the Europeans in the army. The field and other artillery was to be manned entirely by the Europeans. In order to put the policy of divide and rule, regiments were created on the basis of caste, community and regions (such as of Sikhs, Gurkhas, Pathans, etc) to prevent the emergence of nationalist feeling among soldiers.

6. The policy towards Princely States also changed radically and the states were treated as the bulwark of the empire against future contingencies. The policy of annexation was now completely given up and the rulers of the Princely States were allowed to adopt heirs. But the status of the Princely States was reduced to subordinates and dependants.

7. The Revolt ended an era of territorial expansion, and started an era of economic exploitation.

8. The Revolt left terrible financial scars on the Indian soil. Hundreds of villages were destroyed. The public debt of India increased enormously.

9. The Revolt left a legacy of racial bitterness.

10. Though failed, the Revolt soon became a symbol of challenge to the mighty British empire in India and inspired the rise and growth of Indian national movement. The leaders of the Revolt became national heroes.

Nature and character of the Revolt

Ever since the publication of the book First War of Indian Independence First War of Indian Independence by the distinguished revolutionary V.D. Savarkar in London in 1909, the nature and character of the Revolt of 1857 has been hotly debated among the nationalists and historians. The debate centres round three main views: (1)that the revolt was a Sepoy Mutiny; (2) that it was a national struggle or War of Independence; and (3) that it was a mere manifestation of feudal unrest and reaction.

Sepoy Mutiny: British historians and certain observers of the 19^th century saw it merely as a “Sepoy Mutiny”. Sir John Seeley described the event as a “wholly unpatriotic and selfish Sepoy Mutiny with no native leadership and no popular support”. This view is based on the assumption that the revolt was started by soldiers discontented with their service conditions. But the fact is that though the rebellion began as a military uprising, the leadership was in the hands of the civilians, and a very large number of civilians joined it. Besides, the military discontent was just one of the causes for the outbreak of the revolt.

War of Independence or Nationalist Struggle: The nationalists interpreted the revolt as a War of Independence. Savarkar described it as a “planned war of national independence.” S.N. Sen in his book Eighteen Fifty Seven agreed with this view and said: “what began as a fight for religion ended as a war of independence.” Opposing the view of Savarkar and Sen, R.C. Majumdar maintained that “the so-called First National War of Independence of 1857 is neither First, nor National, nor War of Independence”. For him, it was not a National Struggle because the larger part of the country and large sections of people took no part in it. It was not a War of Independence because various leaders of the revolt had no identity of purpose.

Feudal Unrest: Marxist historians have interpreted the revolt as a feudal insurrection because the leaders came from a feudal background and they did not have a modern vision about the future. But the revolt had two dimensions: mutiny and rebellion. It was the outcome of the coming together of two series of disturbances, military and civil, each provoked by independent grievances.

It would be difficult to precisely categorize the revolt. It was undoubtedly anti-imperialist and nationalist, because both Hindus and Muslims participated in equal measure and in close cooperation. Both the sepoys and the civilians wanted to overthrow foreign rule from India. But the concept of a common nationality and nationhood was, however, completely absent.


INDIA UNDER THE CROWN

The Revolt of 1857 gave a severe blow to the British administration in India and made its reorganization inevitable. In fact, Indian society, the Indian government and the Indian economy all underwent significant changes in the decades following the revolt.

GROWTH OF ADMINISTRATIVE MACHINERY

Home Government: The Act of 1858 transferred the governing power from the East India Company to the British crown. Under the rule of the Company, ultimate authority was wielded by the Directors of the Company and the Board of Control at London. After the transfer of power, it was exercised by a Secretary of State for India aided by a Council. The Secretary of State was a member of the British cabinet and was responsible to the British Parliament and not to the Indian people. The Council of the Secretary of State, known as the India Council, was his advisory board. Most of the members of the India Council were retired British-Indian officials.

Central Government: In India, the head of the government was the Governor-General who was also called the Viceroy or Crown’s personal representative. There was strict control of the British parliament over his powers. The Governor-General would have an executive council whose members acted as the heads of various departments as cabinet ministers. They also acted as his official advisers. Originally there were five members of this council. But by 1918 there were six ordinary members in addition to the commander-in-chief. The council discussed all important matters and decided them by a majority vote. But the Viceroy had the power to overrule the decisions of the Council.

The Indian Councils Act passed in 1861 enlarged the Viceroy’s Council for making laws and it came to be known as the Imperial Legislative Council. The Governor-General was authorized to enlarge his Council from six to twelve members; at least half of the additional six members could be non-officials of Indian or English origin. It had no real powers but was merely an advisory body. In fact, the Legislative Council had no control over the executive. Non-official Indian members were inducted into the Council to represent Indian views, because it was believed that the Revolt of 1857 would not have occurred if Indian views had been known to the rulers. But as the Indian members of the Council were thoroughly unrepresentative of the Indian people and as their number was very few, the Government of India remained thoroughly despotic as before 1858.

Provincial Government: The British had divided India into administrative units called provinces. Three of them – Bengal, Madras and Bombay – were called presidencies. The Presidencies were administered by a Governor and his Executive Council of three members appointed by the Crown. The Presidency governments possessed more powers than other provinces. The Provincial Governments were headed by Lieutenant Governors and Chief Commissioners appointed by the Governor-General.

By the Act of 1861 Legislative Councils similar to that of the centre were established inBombay, Madras and Bengal and in other provinces. They too were mere advisory bodies and they too lacked powers of a democratic parliament.

Local Bodies: Local bodies included municipalities and district boards. Local services like education, health, sanitation and water supply were transferred to local bodies who would finance them through local taxes. But they were not true local self-governments in that they consisted of nominated members and were presided over by District Magistrates. In fact, the idea behind the introduction of local bodies was that associating Indians with the administration would prevent their becoming politically disaffected.

Public Services: All positions of power and responsibility in the administration were occupied by the members of the Indian Civil Service who were recruited through an annual examination held in London. Only a few Indians could pass the examination. So they were largely excluded from higher grades of administration.

RELATIONS WITH PRINCELY STATES

The Revolt of 1857 led the British to reverse their policy towards the Indian states. Before the revolt they took every opportunity to annex the princely states. This policy was now abandoned. Most of the princes had not only remained loyal to the British but had actively aided them to suppress the revolt. Their loyalty was now rewarded with the announcement that their right to adopt heirs would be respected and their territories would no more be annexed. Moreover, the experience of the revolt had convinced the British authorities that the princely states could serve as useful allies and supporters in case of popular opposition or revolt.

On the other hand, as the price of their continued existence the princes were made to acknowledge Britain as the paramount power. Though before 1857 they were subsidiary allies of the British, they were sovereign powers. Now the princes ruled their states merely as agents of the British crown.

As the paramount power, the British claimed the right to supervise the internal government of the princely states. They interfered in the administration of the princely states through the Resident and even insisted on appointing ministers and officials. Sometimes the rulers themselves were removed. The princes were used to suppress the growing democratic and nationalist movements.

The changed British policy towards the princely states is best illustrated by the cases ofMysore and Baroda. The ruler of Mysore was deposed in 1831. In 1868 the Government recognized the adopted heir of the old ruler and inn 1881 the state was fully restored to the young Maharaja. On the other hand, the ruler of Baroda was deposed from power in 1874 and a new ruler was put on the throne.

FOREIGN POLICY

IN RELATION TO AFGHANISTAN AND BURMA

Under the British rule, India developed relations with its neighbours on a new basis. The British government had two major aims in Asia and Africa: protection of its invaluable Indian empire and the expansion of British commerce and other economic interests in Asia and Africa. Both these aims led to British expansion and territorial conquests outside India’s natural frontiers.

In fact, the years between 1870 and 1914 witnesses an intense struggle between the European powers for colonies and markets in Asia and Africa. The search for markets and sources of raw materials for their industries led to an intense rivalry among European states. Britain, having secured a lion’s share of the colonies of the world faced rivals on all sides. The desire to defend their Indian empire, to promote British economic interests and to keep the other European powers away from India often led the British Indian government to commit aggression on India’s borders. In other words, the foreign policy of the British in India was determined by the needs of British imperialism.

Conquest of Burma: Through three successive wars the independent kingdom of Burma was conquered by the British during the 19^th century. The conflict between Burma and British Indiawas initiated by border clashes. It was inflamed by expansionist urges. The British merchants wanted to export their manufactures to Burma and were attracted by the forest resources of the land. The British also wanted to check the spread of French commercial and political influence in Burma and the rest of South East Asia.

The First Burmese war, 1824-26: After centuries of internal strife, Burma was united by King Alaungpaya between 1752-60. His successor, Bodawpaya conquered many territories and brought Burma’s border up to that of British India. The Burmese also conquered Manipur and Assam by 1822. Clashes between the British and Burmese forces became common thereafter. The Burmese occupation of Manipur and Assam was looked upon by the British authorities as a serious threat to their position in India. In order to safeguard their Indian territories and to exclude French traders from Burma, the British now declared war on Burma. The war ended in the ultimate victory of the British and a treaty was concluded between the two. Accordingly Burma agreed to 1) pay one crore rupees as war compensation; 2) cede its coastal provinces of Arakan and Tennasserin to the British; 3) abandon all claims on Assam, Cachar and Jaintia; 4) to recognize Manipur as an independent state; 5) negotiate a commercial treaty with Britain; and 6) accept a British Resident at their capital. By this treaty the British deprived Burma of most of its coastline, and acquired a firm base in Burma for future expansion.

The Second Burmese War, 1852: If the first Burmese war was the result of border clashes, the second war was almost wholly the result of British commercial greed. The British who had already occupied Burma’s two coastal provinces, now wanted to establish commercial relations with the rest of the country, but the Burmese government would not permit further commercial penetration. The British provoked a conflict over a minor issue of the alleged ill-treatment of two British captains by the Burmese authorities and declared war on Burma. This time the war was much shorter but more decisive. The Burmese king Mindon had to surrender and the war ended without a treaty. The British annexed Pegu, the only remaining coastalprovince of Burma. The whole of Burma’s coastline and its entire sea-trade came under the control of the British.

The Third Burmese war, 1885: Peaceful relations prevailed between the British and the Burmese government for several years after the second war. But the British continued their efforts to open up Upper Burma. The British merchants were attracted by the possibility of trade with China through Burma. By the commercial treaty of 1862, Upper Burma was open to British trade. The conditions for another war with Burma took shape when the new Burmese king Thibaw pursued the policy of developing commercial and political relations with the French. Alarmed by the growth of French influence in Burma and the threat it posed to British trade, the British declared war on Burma. In this war King Thibaw surrendered and his dominions were annexed to the British Indian Empire soon after.

Relations with Afghanistan

The British Indian government fought two wars with Afghanistan before its relations with the government of Afghanistan were stabilized. During the 19^th century the problem of Indo-Afghan relations was determined by the Anglo-Russian rivalry. Just as Britain, Russia too was an expanding power in Asia. Consequently, the two imperialisms openly clashed all over Asia. The British feared for their security of their dominion in India. Throughout the 19^th century the British rulers of India feared that Russia would launch an attack on India through Afghanistanand the North Western frontier of India. They therefore wanted to keep Russia at a safe distance from the Indian frontier. Anglo-Russian rivalry over Central Asian trade was another factor in the situation. If Russia succeeded in colonizing the whole of Central Asia, the British chances of participating in Central Asian commerce in the future would disappear. Thus,Afghanistan was placed in a crucial position geographically from the British point of view. It could serve as an advanced post outside India’s frontiers for checking Russia’s potential military threat as well as for promoting British commercial interests in Central Asia.

Politically, Afghanistan faced a number of internal and external threats in the 19^th century. Dost Muhammed, who was the ruler in 1835, tried to bring stability to the country. In the north, he faced Russian danger, in the south one of his brothers challenged his power from Khandahar, in the East, Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab occupied Peshawar, in the west lay enemies ofHerat and the Persian threat. In this situation, he desired alliance with the British to stabilize his power. The British did not want a strong Afghanistan; In fact they wanted to keep it weak and divided for controlling it easily. Dost Muhammed wanted Afghanistan to be an ally of the British Indian government on the basis of equality and not as a subordinate state. Having found his attempts to acquire British friendship failed, he reluctantly turned to Russia.

First Afghan War: In this situation, the British decided to replace Dost Muhammad with Shah Shuja, who had been deposed from power and was living in India. The British, in association with Ranjit Singh, entered into a treaty with Shah Shuja by which the first two agreed to help Shah Shuja to capture power in Afghanistan and, in return, Shah Shuja promised not to enter into negotiations with any foreign state without the consent of the British and Ranjit Singh.

Afghanistan was attacked by the combined forces of the three allies in 1839. Kabul fell to the British and Shah Shuja was immediately placed on the throne. But the people of Afghanistandetested the power of Shah Shuja and the presence of British troops and rebellions broke out all over the country. At last the British were compelled to sign a treaty with the Afghan chiefs by which they agreed to evacuate Afghanistan and restore Dost Muhammed. The evacuating British army of 16000 men was massacred by the Afghan forces. Thus the entire Afghan adventure ended in total failure.

Thereafter the British followed a policy of friendship and non-interference with Dost Muhammed. When Russia again turned its attention to central asia, and with the defeat of the Russians in the Crimean War, the British followed a policy of strengthening Afghanistan as a powerful buffer. They gave aid and assistance to the ruler particularly with an objective to prevent him from aligning with Russia.

The Second Afghan War: From 1870 onwards there was a resurgence of imperialism all over the world. The Anglo-Russian rivalry was also intensified. The British again thought of bringing Afghanistan under direct political control so that it could serve as a base for British expansion in Central Asia. There was also considerable fear among the British men of a Russian invasion of India.

Sher Ali, the Afghan ruler, wanted alliance with the British in order to resist the Russian threat. He offered an alliance with the British. But the British refused to enter into an unconditional agreement but, rather, insisted on the right to keep a British mission at Kabul and to exercise control over Afghanistan’s foreign relations. When Sher Ali refused to comply, preparations were made for a new invasion of Afghanistan. Lord Lytton, who became the new Governor-General of India decided to follow an aggressive policy.

Afghanistan was attacked and defeated in 1878. As per the treaty of Gandamak signed with Yakub Khan, the son of Sher Ali, the British secured the right to keep a Resident at Kabul and control over Afghanistan’s foreign policy. They also secured some border districts.

But the British victory was short-lived. Rebellions broke out all over Afghanistan. Lord Ripon, who followed Lytton, reversed the aggressive policy of Lytton and went back to the policy of non-interference. He concluded a new treaty with Abdur Rahman, the grandson of Dost muhammed. Accordingly, the British Resident at Kabul was withdrawn. But the control over the foreign policy of Afghanistan came under the hands of the British. Though Afghanistan lost its control over its foreign policy, it could retain complete control over its internal affairs.

The Third Afghan War: The First World War and the Russian Revolution of 1917 created a new situation in Anglo-Afghan relations. The war gave rise to strong anti-British feeling in Muslim countries, and the Russian Revolution inspired new anti-imperialist sentiments. The disappearance of Imperial Russia removed the perpetual fear of aggression from the north. The Afghans now demanded full independence from British control. Amanulla, the new ruler, declared open war on the british. As per a new treaty concluded in 1921, Afghanistanrecovered its independence in foreign affairs.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPACT OF BRITISH COLONIALISM

 

India became a classic colony of Britain by the end of the 19^thC. The British rule in India was based on colonial ideology and imperial interest. It created lasting impact on society and economy.

THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF BRITISH RULE

The transformation of Indian economy in to colonial economy was the most important result of British rule in India. Thus the Indian economy was subjected to the economic requirement of industrial Britain, production became market oriented, India’s economic development was impeded, Indian economy was integrated with the world capitalist system and whole India was transformed in to a single economic unit.

1. Indo-British trade

The British rule in India facilitated internal and foreign trade. While the abolition of transit duties, peace and order created by British rule, means of transport and communication and introduction of railway favoured the growth of internal trade, the opening of Suez Canal in 1869 gave a great impetus for indo-British trade. Earlier British India exported finished goods. But after the industrial revolution in Britain India exported raw materials like jute, cotton, wheat, oil seeds etc. and imported finished goods. The British imports to India manufactured new taste and habits and proved to be destructive to Indian traditional industries. The excess of imports over exports was not favourable to India. Thus the growth of foreign trade was positive to British imperial interests. 

2. Destruction of Indian Traditional Rural and Village Industries

For centuries India had a well developed, high quality handicraft industry like silk and cotton textiles that catered the needs of domestic aristocratic sections and the people of other continents. The industrial policy of imperial Britain caused the destruction of India’s traditional urban and rural village industries. British policy of annexation caused to loss the power and status of local magnets and their dependants, the principal customers of handicrafts. The adverse effect of British policy of customs and transit duties also caused havoc to artisans. As a result the Indian manufacturers failed to carry on internal trade effectively. Many artisanal groups especially weavers compelled to leave their hereditary profession. The industrial Revolution in Britain produced adverse effect. India became a “Free Trade” zone to British merchants and manufacturers and Indian markets were flooded with the cheap machine made goods from England. The Indian handicrafts industrial products especially cotton textiles could not stand in competition with the finished factory goods imported to India. Further the British introduced strict laws prohibiting the import of Indian cotton textiles to Britain. Above all the new Indian middle class’ thirst for British manufactured goods also created harm to Indian interest. Thus the influx of cheap machine made goods to Indian villages through railways and motor vehicles caused the decline of Indian rural artisanal industries. It also resulted in the decline of self sufficient village economy of India.

3. Deindustrialisation

Scholars have characterised the ruination of Indian rural and urban industries during the colonial period as “deindustrialisation”. The Industrial Revolution first of all wiped out the market for India's artisans in Europe, because the economies of large scale production in the new English factories made it impossible for artisanal products to compete with factory products. By the beginning of the 19th century the staple industrial exports, cotton textiles, began to decline and soon they ceased to be exported. Some other items, e.g. indigo and raw silk, continued to be exported - though from 1813 it was no longer the East India Company but private trade which became the agency for exports. Not only was the export market of the Indian artisans taken away by the foreign factories, but the home market began to be invaded by imported factory products. The decay of handicraft industries was not accompanied by a simultaneous growth of modern industries in India. This is the process which has been called de-industrialisation since it is the reverse of the process of industrialisation. According to Sumit Sarkar “the artisans were made to shoulder the burden of progress being achieved in a country 6000 miles away”. R.P.Dutt opines that “India was transformed from being a country of combined agriculture and manufactures into an agricultural colony of British manufacturing Capitalism”. It increased pressure on Agriculture. When modern industries began many of the ruined artisans migrated to towns and became industrial wage labourers.

4. Beginning of Modern Factory Industries

RIPON AND CURZON: POLICIES AND REFORMS

The administrative changes that took place after the revolt of 1857 entrusted immense power in the hands of Viceroy. There were two Viceroys who brought in to effect significant changes in Indian administration through their policies and reforms-Lord Ripon and Curzon. 

Ripon and his Reforms (1880-84) 

lord Ripon became the Viceroy of India as a representative of the liberal govt. of Britain under William Gladstone. A true liberal of the Gladstonian era, Ripon’s whose political out look was very antithesis to his immediate predecessor –Lord Lytton. He was inspired with a sense of mission and duty toward India. His major measures bear the stamp of sympathy and humanitarianism. He took some steps towards liberalizing administration in India. His sincerity of purpose is clear from his first public announcement in Calcutta when he said “judge me by my acts and not by my words”. He brought an end to the second Afghan war and repealed the Vernacular Press Act.

Important reforms

Ø Local self govt.

Ø liberal attitude towards Press

Ø Educational reforms

Ø Factory Act

Ø Financial Decentralization

Ø Ilbert Bill

1. Local Self Government: - Ripon tried to introduce the real element of local self govt. in India. His resolution on local self govt. (1882) was a land mark. The development of local self govt. bodies was advocated as an instrument of political and popular education. In 1883 and 1884, a series of acts inspired by Ripon’s resolution on local self govt. were passed. They set up rural boards at the District and Taluk level and in some Provinces Panchayats representing group of Villages. The members of the district and Taluk boards were elected. There was also a nominated element. The Taluk board was presided over by a nominated Chairman. The district board was presided over by the Collector. These boards dealt with roads, education, medical relief etc. But bureaucracy was not ready to be liberal as Ripon. They controlled and put restrictions. As a result these reforms were not introduced in many provinces, where old system continued. Any way Ripon’s resolutions sawed the seeds of local self govt. in India and he is often called as “the father of local self govt. in India”.

2. Liberal Attitude towards the Press: -

In 1882, Ripon repealed ‘Gagging Act’ of Canning and Vernacular Press Act of Lord Lytton. Under the stress of the revolt of 1857, Lord Canning introduced a system of licensing of all printing presses. This measure came to be called the ‘Gagging act’. 
Lytton’s Act discriminated against the Vernacular Press and gave power to the magistrate to demand bonds for good behavior from printers and publishers of Vernacular Press. The repeal of these two laws left the Press practically free. 
3. Educational Reforms:- 
In 1882 Ripon appointed Hunter Commission to Review the Progress of education in India and suggest measures for further growth. Commission recommended for the expansion and improvement of primary education, withdrawal of state from direct support and management of higher educational institutions. Ordinary and special grants were to be made to the colleges. All elementary schools were to be inspected and supervised by the educational officers of the govt. It also recommended for the spread of female education and education among the Muslims. Ripon’s govt. accepted the recommendations of the commissions were carried out. It resulted in unprecedented growth in higher education in British India.

4. Factory Legislation: -

Ripon took keen interest in the welfare of the people. In 1881 he passed the First Factory act, to regulate and improve the conditions of labour in Indian Factories. Children between the age of 17 and 12 were not to work for more than 9 hours a day. It prohibited employment of children less than 7 years. It recommended that the dangerous machinery was to be fenced and inspectors were to be appointed for the purpose of injection. Ripon’s factory act opened a new chapter in the industrial history of India. 
5. Financial Decentralization:- Ripon's govt. continued the process of financial decentralization begun by Lord Mayo. Ripon's measures were aimed at increasing the financial responsibilities of the provinces. The sources of revenue were divided in to three classes, viz., imperial, provincial and divided. 
1) Imperial heads: -

Revenues from customs, posts and telegraphs, railways, opium, salt. Mint, military receipts, land revenue etc., went wholly to the central govt. and the central expenditure was to be met out of this income. 
2) Provincial heads: -

Income from subjects of local nature like jails, medical services, printing, roads, general administration etc. was to go entirely to provincial govts. Above all central govt. provided a grand of fixed percent of land revenue to the provinces to meat their requirements. 
3) Divided Heads:-

Income from excise, stamps, forests, registration etc., was divided in equal proportion among the central and provincial govts. 
The financial settlement was to be received in every 5 years. The Comptroller and Auditor General was to audit the central and provincial accounts and report to the Governor General. According to Bipan Chandra Ripon's financial measures were 'to keep down expenditure an increase income'. These patterns of financial decentralization continued untill the end of British rule. 
6.Ilbert Bill 
It created an everlasting image to Ripon among Indians. Though the Indians were capable to occupy the place of District and Session Judge, Indian judges were not allowed to try those cases in which European subjects were involved. with the aim of providing equal opportunities and putting an end to the judicial disqualification based on racial distinction, Ripon asked C.P.Ilbert, law member of Viceroy's Council to prepare a Bill enabling an Indian Judge to try a European. There was great opposition to the Bill among the Europeans in India. They began to boycott Ripon from social gatherings, abused and even conspired to kidnap. Finally the bill had to be amended. It provided the European accused with a right to claim a trial by jury of 12 members of whom at least seven were to be Europeans or Americans. 
Ilbert bill controversy endeared Ripon to the Indians and it showed them how to agitate against govt. policies and measures. The amendment virtually defeated Ripon's aims; he resigned before his term of Viceroyality was over and returned to England in1884. 
Estimate 
Ripon's period of 4 years is noted for his liberal attitude towards the Indian aspirations. His reform in the local administration with an aim to provide political and popular education to Indians, liberal attitude towards press, Ilbert Bill and his resignation shows clearly the depth of his pro-Indian feeling. Florence Nightingale labeled Ripon as 'the savior of India'. Madan Mohan Malavya said:" Ripon was the greatest and most beloved Viceroy whom India has known".

Curzon and his Reforms (1899-1905)

The appointment of Lord Curzon as Viceroy of India in succession to Lord Elgin II was the fulfillment of his life long dream. Though he knew more about India than any living man of the times, he thought that he had a lot to learn. Once he said that "the East is a university in which the scholar never takes a degree".

Administrative Reforms:- 

Curzon is both famous and notorious for his reforms and autocracy. He was an imperialist with a zeal for administrative efficiency, who tried to wipe out corruption, nepotism and inefficiency. His concept of Viceroy was that of a “benevolent despot”. As an administrator his method was to appoint an expert commission to probe in to the working of each department and then enact necessary legislation.

a) Police Reforms

In 1902 a Police Commission was appointed under Sir Andrew Frazer to enquire in to the Police Administration of every Provinces. The report submitted in1903 described the police force as “inefficient, defective in training and organization, inadequately supervised corrupt and oppressive”. Some of the recommendations are following.

• Increase in salaries of all ranks of the police.
• Increase in the strength of the police.
• Setting up of training schools.
• Direct recruitment in place of promotion in higher ranks.
• Setting up of a provincial police service.
• Creation of a Central Department of Criminal Intelligence under a Director with subordinate departments in the provinces, etc; etc.

Most of these recommendations were accepted and implemented.

b) Educational Reforms

Curzon found fault with the existing system of education, lamented the deterioration of standards and growth of indiscipline. In 1902 a Universities Commission under Sir Thomas Raleigh was appointed to enquire in to condition of Universities in India and to recommend proposals for their improvement. On the basis of the recommendations of the commission, the Indian Universities Act (1904) was passed. It tightened governmental control over universities with a majority of nominated element. The govt. was vested with the authority to veto the regulations passed by the Senate. It prescribed stringent rules for affiliation and disaffiliation of private colleges. It fixed minimum college fee, and prescribed systematic inspection of colleges by Universities. Thus Curzon’s restrictions reduced Universities in to merely a department of the State.

c) Economic Reforms

Curzon’s administration passed legislations relating to Famines, Land Revenue, Irrigation, Agriculture, Railways, Taxation, Currency, Commerce, Industry etc.

Famine Relief: - The famine and drought of 1899-1900 had effect on wide areas and more than 10 lakh people died. A famine Commission was appointed under Sir Anthony MacDonnell. The Commission recommended for grant of tukkavi loans, suspension of land revenue collection during famines and organization of private charity.

Irrigation: - In 1901, Curzon appointed a Commission under the Chairmanship of sir Colin Scott Moncrieff to investigate the whole question of Irrigation. The Commission recommended an additional expenditure of 4.5 crores of rupees on irrigation spread over 20 years. The work on Jhelum Canal was completed and the digging of the Upper Chenab, the Upper Jhelum and the lower Bari Doab Canalstaken in hand.

Agriculture and Land Revenue: - Curzon’s period saw the beginning of state aid to agriculture. He relaxed rules regarding revenue collection and provided more elasticity and allowed remission in case of crop failure (land resolution on 16 January 1902). The Provincial Agricultural Departments were thoroughly reorganized by Curzon. In 1901 he founded Imperial Agricultural Department and appointed Inspector General of Agriculture to advice Imperial and Provincial govts. The Imperial Agricultural Research Institute was established at Pusa in Biharin 1903. An All India Board of Agriculture was established in 1905 to bring Provincial depts. in touch with one another and evolve common policies. Curzon also took steps to establish Agricultural Colleges. His Punjab Land Alienation Act (1900) put restrictions on transfer of land from agriculturists to non agriculturists. 

Commerce and Industry: - A Commerce and Industries Department was created in 1905 to look after entire commercial and industrial interests in India. It looked after Post & Telegraph, Factories, Railway Administration, Mines, Ports, Marine etc. Curzon also lent his support to the schemes of Jamshedji Tata.

Currency: - Indian Coinage and Paper Currency Act of 1899 made the British sovereign legal tender of India at the rate of Rs: 15 to a sovereign. India was put on a Gold Standard. However, the plan did not work well.

Debt Relief and Credit Co-Operation:- Curzon’s govt. passed Co-operative Credit Societies Act in 1904 as a means against indebtedness. It provided for starting of Rural and Urban Credit Co-Operative Societies. Registrars were appointed to register societies and provide them with help and guidance in running societies. 

Railway: - Curzon gave special attention to the development of Railways. The existing lines were improved and built new line of 6100 km, greater than any other Viceroy had done so far. Mr. Thomas Robertson, a railway expert was invited from Englandto give advice on the working and administration of railways. In 1905 a Railway board was created for Railway administration.

d) Judicial Reform: - Curzon tried to improve the judicial set up of the Country. He increased the number of Judges in Calcutta High Court. He also increased the salary and pension benefits of Judges of High Court as well as subordinate Courts. Above all, the India Code of civil Procedure was revised.

e) Army reforms: - Re organization of army was mostly the work of Lord Kitchener, Commander in Chief in India (1902-08). The Indian Army was grouped in to 2 Commands- Northern Command with its Headquarters at Murree and the Southern Command with its Headquarters at Poona. In each division there were to be 3 brigades, two of native battalion and one of the British battalion. Every Brigadier was to be responsible for the efficiency of his Brigade. A Training College for officers on the model of Camberley College of England was set up at Quetta. Better arms were supplied to the British troops. Above all, every battalion of the army was subjected to a severe test called ‘The Kitchener Test’. 

f) Ancient Monuments Act (1904) 
Curzon was a keen student of history and Archaeology. In 1904 he passed Ancient Monuments Preservation Act to repair, restore and protect historical monuments in the country. A sum of £ 50000 was sanctioned for carrying on the repair of historical buildings in India. He put pressure on the Indian States to preserve the rich heritage of India in the Ajanta-Ellora caves, at the Sanchi stupa etc. He urged the provincial govts.to open museums for the safe custody of rare objects. Curzon properly organized the Archaeological Survey Department. Sir John Marshall was appointed as the Director General of Archaeology. He carried out explorations at the ancient sites of Mohanjodaro, Harappa, Takshasila, Pataliputra etc. and unearthed the towns of ancient Indian Civilization. 
g) Calcutta Corporation Act (1899) This Act was an attempt to undo the work of Lord Ripon in the field of Local Administration. The act reduced the strength of elected elements and gave British element a definite majority in Corporation and its various Committees. It vested large authorities and power with the nominated Chairman. The Indian Members resented the change and resigned in protest. 
h) Partition of Bengal (1905)

It was the most resented reform of Lord Curzon. In the name of administrative efficiency Lord Curzon decided to divide Bengal in to two- East Bengal and West Bengal .Curzon described the partition as mere readjustment of administrative boundaries. But it was the division of a nation and a culture. The west Bengal was predominantly Hindu while the majority in East Bengal was Muslims. The decision was actually based on British policy of “Divide and Rule”. It further aimed at suppressing the nascent nationalist movement inBengal. British considered united Bengal as a threat to their rule. Finally in 1911 British were compelled to repeal the decision to divide Bengal.

Estimate

Lord Curzon was an imperialist, able administrator and an autocrat who undermined the Indian Public opinion. His rule kindled the spirit of Nationalism in India. Curzon had firm belief in the permanence of British Raj in India. Though he justified his administrative reforms in the name of efficiency and convenience what actually happened was “officialization and centralization”. 

 

SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS

The consolidation of British power in India in the 18^th and 19^th centuries led to fundamental changes in Indian society. The British contact and the spread of modern western ideas exposed the weakness and decay of Indian society and reflected the obsoleteness of Indian social customs and institutions. Thoughtful Indians began to look for the defects of their society and for ways and means of removing them. The new intelligentsia, which imbibed the modern western culture, and were impressed by modern science and the doctrines of reason and humanism, recognized the need to launch movements to reform social institutions and religious outlooks inherited from the past. The socio-religious movements were expressions of this newly emerging western educated section of society in India. While these movements in general were inspired by modern science and reason, some of them were revivalist in trend and appealed to the ‘golden’ Indian past. This tended to impart a retrogressive character to these movements. However, they played an important role in creating cultural consciousness among western liberal educated Indians and in arousing patriotic feelings among the people ofIndia. This new awakening is popularly known as the Indian Renaissance.

Rajaram Mohan Roy and the Brahma Samaj

The central figure in the Indian social awakening was Ram Mohan Roy, who is the first great leader of modern India and came to be known as the ‘Father of Modern India’. He initiated new ideas which characterized the early years of the 19^th century and gave birth to the Indian Renaissance. He represented a synthesis of the thought of East and West and acted as a bridge between the past and the present. He attempted to modernize the religion and customs of India without sacrificing the essentials of tradition.

Ram Mohan Roy was born in an orthodox Brahmin family of Bengal. He became a profound scholar of Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, English and Bengali and also knew foreign languages like Greek, Latin and Hebrew. He tried to understand the essential principles of all the prominent religions of the world. He was a learned scholar in Sanskrit literature and Hindu philosophy. In order to understand Islam he studied the Quran and Persian and Arabic literature. To study the Bible in original he learned Greek and Hebrew. In 1809 he wrote in Persian his famous work Tuhfat-ul- Muwah-hiddin (Gift to Monotheists) in which he raised his arguments against the belief in many gods (polytheism) and strongly pleaded for the worship of a single god. In 1820 he published his Precepts of Jesus – the Guide of Peace and Happiness, which contained his conviction about the simplicity and morality of the Christian religion. His other works include Manazaratul Adyan, a discussion in Persian on various religions and the translation of some parts of Vedanta and Upanishads.

Ram Mohan Roy stood for a rational approach to religion. He was deeply influenced by the monotheism and anti-idolatry of Islam, Sufism, the ethical teachings of Christianity and the liberal and rational doctrines of the west. He desired to rid the Hindu society of all irrational and evil customs. He vigourously opposed worship of idols, rigidity of caste, and prevalence of meaningless religious rituals. He condemned the priestly class for encouraging these practices. He held that all the ancient texts of the Hindus preached monotheism or worship of one god. To carry on a persistent struggle against the religious and social evils which were widely prevalent among the Hindus of Bengal, he started the Atmiya Sabha in 1815 which was transformed into Brahma Sabha in 1828 and later known as Brahma Samaj. The new society was to be based on the twin pillars of reason and the Vedas and Upanishads. It was also to incorporate the teachings of other religions.

Ram Mohan Roy propounded that the Vedanta gave the purest form of theistic principles, uncontaminated by idolatry. While looking back to ancient texts for his religious views, he depended ultimately on the power of human reason. He believed that the philosophy of Vedanta was based on this principle of reason. But for him there was no blind reliance onIndia’s own past or blind aping of the west. On the other hand, he put forward the idea that new India, guided by reason, should learn the best from East and West. He stood for the reform of Hinduism and opposed its replacement with Christianity. He vigorously defended Hindu religion from the attack of the Christian missionaries. He believed that basically all religions preach a common message and that their followers are all brothers under the skin.

He was the first and one of the greatest champions of emancipation of Indian women. He opposed polygamy, kulinism and sati and came out in support of the inheritance of the property by daughters. He led a life-long crusade against the custom of women becoming sati and urged the British government to promulgate a law for its abolition. As a result of his sustained efforts, the Governor General Lord William Bentinck passed a regulation in 1829 which declared sati illegal and punishable as a criminal offence. This regulation began the process of social reform through social legislation.

Ram Mohan Roy was also a relentless crusader against child marriage and the rigidity of the caste system, which he described as undemocratic and inhuman. He stood for the freedom of widows to remarry and equal rights of men and women.

Ram Mohan Roy was one of the earliest propagators of modern education which he looked upon as a major instrument for the spread of modern ideas in the country. He was also guided by the vision of an independent and resurgent India. He wanted to unite the Indians and opposed the caste system which destroyed national unity and patriotic feeling. However, Roylooked with favour upon the British rule in India. He admired it for inaugurating progressive measures of social reform and establishing modern educational institutions.

Brahma Samaj after Roy

For ten years after Ram Mohan Roy’s death and till the rise of Dwaraknath Tagore the Brahma Samaj lost its vigour due to the lack of dynamic leaders. Tagore’s Tattvabodhini Sabha worked as the main organizational wing of the Brahma Samaj till it merged with the Samaj in 1843. Its main objectives were promotion of religious enquiry and spread of the knowledge of the Upanishads. Akshay Kumar Datta and Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, two prominent leaders of the movement, soon joined hands with Tagore.

The most influential leader of the Brahma Samaj after Roy was Kesab Chandra Sen. Young Keshab drew around him a number of earnest young men with whom he established in 1859 a small society known as Sangat Sabha. Its main objective was to discuss the spiritual and social problems of the day. The members of the Sabha decided to give up their caste, to discard the sacred thread, to refuse to associate with idolatrous festivals, etc. ceremonies were remodeled from which everything idolatrous was eliminated. Sen was a strong supporter of emancipation of women, female education, intercaste marriages and organized a campaign against child marriage. But these radical measures led to a schism in the Brahma Samaj in 1866. Devendranath’s group, calling itself Adi Brahma Samaj, separated from Sen’s group. The Brahma Samaj faced a second split in 1878 in connection with the marriage of Sen’s daughter, both the bride and the bridegroom being underage. The marriage was conducted in accordance with Hinndu rites which was a violation of the rules of the Brahma Samaj. Following these developments, a new organization called Sadharana Brahma Samaj came into existence. The second split dealt a fatal blow to the Brahma movement. After the death of Kesab Chandra Sen’s death in 1884, the movement lacked an efficient leadership. Thereafter it declined steadily.

Prarthana Samaj

Religious reform was begun in Bombay in 1840 by the Paramahans Mandali which aimed at fighting idolatry and the caste system. Perhaps the earliest religious reformer in western India was Gopal hari Deshmukh, known popularly as ‘Lokahitavadi’, who made powerful rationalist attack on Hindu orthodoxy, and preached religious and social equality.

The Prarthana Samaj was founded in 1867 in Maharashtra by Mahadev Govinda Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar. It aimed at reforming Hindu religious thought and practice in the light of modern knowledge. It preached the worship of one god and tried to free religion out of caste and priestly domination. It was powerfully influenced by the Brahma Samaj. Its activities also spread to south India as a result of the efforts of the Telugu reformer, Veeresalingam.

Ranade pointed out that most of the prevailing customs were totally different from the practices observed in earlier times. He cited such examples as the dependant status of women, child marriage, prohibition of widow marriage, seclusion of women, prohibition of foreign travel, untouchability, etc. Ranade stood for a Hinduism purified of evils and interpreted in the light of modern theistic philosophy.

Later on two other leaders, namely Dhondo Keshav Karve and Vishnu Sastri, joined hands with Ranade to work for social reform. Ranade and Karve launched a widow marriage movement and started Widows’ Home Association, to provide education to widows. The Widow’s Home aimed at making widows self-supporting by giving them training as teachers, midwives or nurses.

Arya Samaj

In North India, the Arya Samaj undertook the task of reforming Hindu religion. Arya Samaj was founded by Dayananda Saraswati in 1875 with its headquarters at Lahore. Dayananda believed that selfish and ignorant priests had perverted Hindu religion with the aid of the Puranas which he said were full of false teachings. For his own inspiration he went to the Vedas which he regarded as infallible, being the inspired word of God and the fount of all knowledge. He rejected all later religious thought if it contradicted with the Vedas. After studying the Vedas he came to the conclusion that the “Aryans were the chosen people, the Vedas the chosen gospel and India the chosen land”. Dayananda summarized his basic ideas in his work Satyartha Prakash. This total dependence on the Vedas and their infallibility gave his teachings an orthodox colouring.

Dayananda looked upon the Vedas as “India’s Rock of Ages”. He believed that the Hindu religion and the Vedas upon which it was based were eternal, unalterable, infallible and divine. Therefore he gave the slogan “Go Back to the Vedas” and the “Vedas are the source of all knowledge”. He rejected the authority of the later scriptures like the Puranas, which in his view were responsible for the evil practices of idol worship and other superstitious beliefs in the Hindu religion. On the assumption that the Vedas were the source of all knowledge and by rejecting all post-Vedic developments, the Arya Samaj denounced the infinite number of meaningless rites and the worship of images of Gods and goddesses which split the people into numerous sects, repudiated the authority of the Brahmans and launched a crusade against all religious superstitions.

The Arya Samajists were vigorous advocates of social reform and worked actively to improve the condition of women, and to spread education among them. They fought untouchability and the rigidities of the hereditary caste system. They were opposed to the practice of child marriage and supported widow marriage and inter-caste marriages. They stood for equal rights for men and women in social and educational matters. The Samaj established a network of Dayananda Anglo Vedic schools and colleges for the education of both boys and girls.

Some activities of the Arya Samaj were, however, very controversial. The foremost was the Shuddhi programme, which was meant to open the doors of Hinduism for those who had embraced other religions. Shuddhi provided for the reconversion of such persons to Hinduism. This movement was mainly directed against the Christian missionaries who had converted a large number of Hindus to Christianity. Another programme of the samaj, which created considerable trouble, was protection of the cow. In 1882 the Arya Samaj formed a ‘Cow Protection Association’. The aggressive activities of some of its agents and the equally sensitive response of the Muslim theologians led to the outbreak of serious riots in some parts of the country.

The two most important contributions of the Samaj were that it attempted to inculcate a sense of pride in India’s pride and worked for the spread of western education. It played a very progressive role in the earlier stages of national awakening when it attacked religious superstitions and numerous social evils and also when it adopted the programme of mass education and equality of men and women. While its reformist work tended to unite people, its religious work tended to divide people and contributed much to the growth of communalism inNorth India in the 20^th century.

Theosophical society

The Theosophical society was founded in by Madam H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel H.S. Olcott in New York in 1875. The founders arrived in India in 1879 and established their headquarters of the society at Adayar near Chennai. In 1888 Annie Besant joined the society in England. The theosophist movement prospered in India with her arrival in India in 1893.

The theosophical society stood for making comparative study of all oriental religions, but considered ancient Hinduism as the most profound spiritual religion in the world. Theosophy accepted the spiritual philosophy of Hinduism and its doctrine of Karma and transmigration of the soul. It preached the universal brotherhood of man. s religious revivalists the theosophists were not very successful. But they made a peculiar contribution to the developments in modern India. It was a movement led by westerners who glorified Indian religions and philosophical tradition. It promoted a spirit of national pride among the Indians.

The theosophical society did commendable work in the field of education. Its most successful achievement was the establishment of the Central Hindu School at Benares. The society opened schools for boys, for women and for the depressed classes. The society opposed child marriage, advocated abolition of caste, the uplift of outcastes, and the amelioration of the condition of widows.

Vivekananda and Ramakrishna Mission

The Ramakrishna monastic order and mission was established in 1887 by Vivekananda, the chief disciple of Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. Ramakrishna was a saintly person who sought religious salvation in the traditional ways of renunciation, meditation and devotion. He drew spiritual inspiration from the Vedanta and the Upanishads but regarded all religions as different paths leading to the same goal. In his search for religious faith or the realization of God he lived with mystics of other faiths, Muslims and Christians. He again and again emphasized that service of man was service of God, for man was the embodiment of God.

It was his great disciple, Swami Vivekananda, who popularized the religious message of Ramakrishna and who tried to put it in a form that would suit the needs of contemporary Indian society. By stressing the need of social action he said that knowledge unaccompanied by action in the actual world in which we lived was useless. He declared that he would talk of religion only when he succeeded in removing poverty and misery from the country. He argued that education would automatically rid the society of all its ailments. Even while espousing the superiority of Indian philosophical tradition, and laying his faith in the Vedanta as a fully rational system, he too proclaimed the essential oneness of all religions.

After the death of Ramakrishna in 1886, Vivekananda dedicated his life for the propagation of his master’s message and soon made a tour around the country which convinced him of the vast misery and suffering of the common people. In his second tour in 1893, he attended the World parliament of Religions at Chicago which created great impression about the spiritual preeminence of Hindu philosophy. The New York Herald reported: “after hearing we feel how foolish is to send missionaries to this learned nation”. After four years of stay abroad Vivekananda returned to India and established two principal centres for training men as sanyasis for the religious and social work of the Mission. The Ramakrishna Mission actively served the society, such as in alleviating suffering, providing medical aid to the sick and looking after the orphans. Under the auspices of the Mission, schools were opened and philanthropic centres were established.

Vivekananda made a signal contribution to the nascent Indian nationalism. Though he never directly preached anti-British policies or nationalism as such, the net result of all his exhortation for reform, unity, awakening and freedom gave rise to a strong feeling of nationalism. Therefore he is generally held as the spiritual precursor of India’s freedom movement.

Aligarh Movement

The Muslims were generally opposed to the western culture and English education in the early phase of colonial rule in India primarily because the British had captured political power from the Muslim rulers which had adversely affected the prospects of the nobility and the ulema. The Muslims had led several movements against the British of which the last and the greatest was the Revolt of 1857. The Revolt shattered the fabric of the Muslim upper classes in North India. With the failure of the Muslim confrontation with the British, a change in the entire political outlook was felt necessary and there was a wide recognition of the need for adjustment with the new age of western domination and western intellectual outlook.

At this juncture, there appeared on the scene one of the greatest men Muslim India has produced in recent times. He was Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan who set about his task with a clear vision and an extraordinarily firm resolve, disdaining alike the open hostility of the conservative ulema and the ridicule of his own friends and colleagues. Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan was in the judicial service of the East India Company at the time of the Revolt of 1857 and stood loyal to the Government. After his retirement from service he appeared in the role of a socio-religious reformer. Through his writings he strongly pleaded for a rationalist and non-conformist trend in religious outlook and political vision.

Sir Sayyid liberalized Indian Islam and took upon himself the triple task of religious reinterpretation, social reform and education. He was tremendously impressed by modern scientific thought and worked all his life to reconcile it with Islam. He declared that Quran alone was the authentic work for Islam and all other Islamic writings were secondary. Even the Quran he interpreted in the light of contemporary rationalism and science. In his view any interpretation of the Quran that conflicted with human reason, science or nature was in reality a misinterpretation. He repudiated the view held by some theologians that the Hindus werekafirs. He stressed the unity of the Hindus and Muslims. He tried to reform the Muslims and believed that the instrument of emancipation was modern education, its rational approach and scientific methods. He came to the conclusion that only by taking to western education would the Muslims be able to overcome their backwardness and come to an understanding with the rulers. All his life he struggled against blind obedience to tradition, dependence on custom, ignorance and irrationalism. He urged the people to develop a critical approach and freedom of thought. He made the town of Aligarh the centre of his activities and in 1875 founded theAligarh School as a centre for spreading western science and culture (which was upgraded in 1877 to a college and named Muhammedan Anglo-Oreintal College and is the forerunner of the Aligarh Muslim University). The whole range of his activities came to be known as theAligarh movement.

The reformist zeal of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan also embraced the social sphere. He urged the Muslims to give up medieval customs and ways of thought and behaviour. In particular he wrote in favour of raising women’s status in society and advocated the removal of purdah and spread of education among women. He also condemned the custom of polygamy and easy divorce.

Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan was a great believer in religious toleration. He believed that all religions had a certain underlying unity which could be called practical morality. Believing that a person’s religion was his or her private affair, he condemned any sign of religious bigotry. However, towards the end of the 19^th century he began to oppose the nationalist movement and Hindu-Muslim unity. In his view a Hindu-Muslim alliance could only be disadvantageous to the Muslim community, which was much smaller in number, educationally backward, politically immature, and economically insecure. Alliance with the Hindus against the British could only lead to the loss of British patronage and to the exploitation and subjugation of the Muslims by the overwhelming Hindu majority. Thus began modern Muslim separatism in India.

Sri Narayana Guru

The second half of the 19^th century witnessed the rise of several social reform movements in Kerala. The most important aspect of these movements was the awakening of the lower caste people and their struggle against the evils of the Hindu society. In the prevailing caste system of Kerala the lower caste people were not only untouchables but unapproachables too. They were denied the freedom of worship and the right to use public roads. They were also denied the opportunity of education and were kept away from government services. The peaceful atmosphere provided by the British rule and the New Learning prepared these people to struggle against the rigidity of the caste system.

The most important reformer of modern Kerala and probably the greatest figure in Kerala Renaissance was Sri Narayana Guru. He was born in 1855 in an Izhava family at Chempazhanthi near Thiruvananthapuram. He had started criticizing caste rules and Brahmin superiority from his early days. His earliest and notable social intervention was the consecration of the idol of Siva at Aruvipuram near Thiruvananthapuram. It became a revolutionary act because according to the Vedic tradition Brahmins alone had the right to install a deity in a temple. His act provoked the caste Hindus but when they questioned him he gave the reply that he had installed an ‘Izhava Siva’ and not a ‘Brahmin Siva’. It unleashed a veritable revolution because it questioned the age-old Brahmin domination and provided the lower castes freedom of worship which was denied to them for centuries. Following the Aruvipuram example, the Guru established several temples in various parts of Kerala in which he appointed Izhavas as priests. Other lower castes were also allowed to worship in these temples.

Sri Narayana Guru wanted to make the Izhavas a model community. He asked them to strengthen themselves through association, emancipate through education and to advance through industrial enterprises. To provide the Izhavas organizational strength, he formed the Sri Narayana Dharmaparipalana Yogam (SNDP Yogam) in 1903. Under the auspices of the Yogam, large number of schools and other educational institutions were started. Many industrial establishments were also started with a view to provide the Izhavas new employment opportunities and to raise their social status (their traditional occupation of toddy-tapping and coconut-picking were perceived as degraded in the existing caste-based occupational system).

Sri Narayana Guru tried to reshape the Izhavas as a model community also by urging them to eradicate several evil and irrational customs practiced by them such as the Talikettu Kalyanam. He vigorously campaigned against the luxurious way of conducting marriages and asked people to perform marriages in the most simple manner. He asked the Izhavas not to drink nor to make or sell toddy. He wanted them to be industrious and enterprising and to think and live rationally.

Though Sri Narayana Guru worked for the upliftment of the Izhavas, he was not a sectarian philosopher and reformer. His message was ‘one caste, one religion and one God for humanity’. He was against narrow religious thinking and caste distinctions. He stated that in essence all religions profess the same ideals and are in fact different paths to the same goal. He advised each and every individual to be good irrespective of his or her religious faith. His philosophy was Advaita which was based on the Upanishadic ideology. He convened an all-religious conference at Aluva in 1924 to “know and to inform” or to exchange ideas among each other.

Sri Narayana Guru died in 1928. By the time of his death, the social revolution started by him had become a grand success. Within a short span of time his message of human love and universal brotherhood extended to embrace almost all castes and communities of Kerala and paved the way for a greater social awakening.

Women’s Movements

In the 19^th century the emancipation of women became a matter of prime concern for the socio-religious reformers. Women then were shamelessly exploited, kept backward and were victims of many degrading customs like sati, female infanticide, purdah, child marriage, polygamy, etc. The reformers saw these customs to be the perverted practices born of ignorance and fear, and followed blindly. Since women were denied education, they also lacked education.

In the view of the reformers, as long as women remained exploited and backward, society could not advance. Women’s status was therefore the most important symbol of social change. The earliest reform groups focused attention on women-related issues. Their activities provided a stimulus and the atmosphere to improve the lot of the Indian women. Ram Mohan Roy worked for the abolition of sati and Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar championed widow remarriage and female education. Dayanand Saraswati, Viresalingam and Ranade also encouraged female education and widow marriage.

Following the initial activities of male reformers, several women activists started their efforts to improve the condition of women. The role of Pandita Ramabai was remarkable as a pioneer in women’s education and a rebel champion of women’s rights. She founded theSharda Sadan, a school for widows, in Bombay and Mukti near Pune. Her greatest legacy was her effort, the first in India, to educate widows.

Emancipation of women took a new momentum with the spread of education among them and with the establishment of a number of associations formed for women by women themselves. The earliest of such a movement was the Bharat Stree Mahamandal formed in 1910 at Allahabad by Saraladevi Chaudharani. In 1915 Dorothy Jinarajadasa founded theWomen’s Indian Association with the principal aim of encouraging female education. The most important and the first truly Indian women organization was the All-India Women’s Conference, founded in 1927. The conference discussed vital issues on female education, child marriage and purdah.